The Vegetarian Diet
Vegetarianism is the practice of not consuming meat, with or without the use of other animal derivatives, such as dairy products or eggs. Some people choose to refrain from wearing clothing derived from animals, such as leather and fur. Veganism, in particular, excludes all animal products from diet and attire, whether or not this involves the actual death of an animal (dairy, eggs, honey, down feathers and silk). Vegetarians are found in countries across the world with varied motivations including religious, ethical, environmental, and health concerns.
More About Vegetarian Diet Programs
Other dietary practices commonly associated with vegetarianism
* Fruitarianism is a diet of only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other
plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant.
* Macrobiotic diet is a diet of mostly whole grains and beans.
* Natural Hygiene in its classic form recommends a diet principally
of raw vegan foods.
* Raw food diet practitioners don't eat food heated above a certain
temperature.
* Raw veganism is a diet of fresh fruit, nuts, seeds, and
vegetables.
Semi-vegetarian varieties
The following similarly named diets are not considered true
vegetarianism:
* Pesco/pollo vegetarianism (semi-vegetarianism, poultratarianism) —
These people will only eat certain meats depending on the particular
diet (pesco-fish, pollo-fowl).
* Flexitarianism — Flexitarians neither want to eat the meat of
animals that lived or died in cruel conditions, nor are they
fulltime vegetarians. They sometimes will eat meat and other
non-dairy animal products.
* Freeganism — Freegans consume things that are beyond the ability
to produce support for those products. For example, a Freegan may
eat a meat product if it has been thrown away or is about to be
thrown away (provided it is still good to eat), but not one that
they have bought or which was bought for them. The point is not to
give money to animal exploitation, but to partake of its waste. For
example some buddhist monks in Japan would refrain from consuming
meat unless it had been given to them as a present.
Vegetarian cuisine
In terms of lacto-ovo vegetarianism, this generally means food which
excludes ingredients under which an animal must have died, such as
meat, meat broth, cheeses that use animal rennet, gelatin (from
animal skin and connective tissue), and for the strictest, even some
sugars that are whitened with bone char (e.g. cane sugar, but not
beet sugar) and alcohol clarified with gelatin or crushed shellfish
and sturgeon.
History
Vegetarianism has been common in the Indian subcontinent, since
possibly the 2nd millennium BC. Hinduism preaches that it is the
ideal diet for spiritual progress and Jainism enjoins all its
followers to be vegetarian.
* Vegetarians in Europe used to be called "Pythagoreans", after the
philosopher Pythagoras and his followers, who abstained from meat in
the 6th century BC. These people followed a vegetarian diet for
nutritional and ethical reasons. According to the Roman poet Ovid,
Pythagoras said: "As long as Man continues to be the ruthless
destroyer of lower living beings he will never know health or peace.
For as long as men massacre animals, they will kill each other.
Indeed, he who sows the seed of murder and pain cannot reap joy and
love." [3][4]
* In looking for parallels in Jewish and Christian antiquity for
these practices, some vegetarians feel a kinship with Nazirite,
Essene, and Ebionite practices.
* Gnostics were also primarily vegetarians for spiritual reasons.
They believed by eating animals a person would be grounding
themselves to this world and their body, which they believed was an
evil created by the Demiurge, because they would be consuming divine
sparks and thus sinning.
* Buddhist monks of the Mahayana school (100CE) have also
historically practiced vegetarianism.
* Many Hindu scriptures advocate vegetarian diet. The secular
literature of Tirukural (circa. 100-300 AD) advocates vegetarianism.
* In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society invented the term
"vegetarian" — from the Latin vegetus "lively", and suggestive of
the English word "vegetable" — was a person who refuses to consume
flesh of any kind. Vegetarianism in the 19th century was associated
with many cultural reform movements, such as temperance and
anti-vivisection. Many "new women" feminists at the end of the
century were vegetarians.
* Seventh-day Adventists and Rastafarians, denominations founded in
the 19th and 20th centuries, are also frequently vegetarian.
* Vegetarian societies (apart from India) were first formed in
majority meat eating European countries both as a means to promote
the diet and to gather together vegetarians for mutual support. By
2000, most western and developing nations had functioning vegetarian
societies. The countries that were first to establish societies are
still the ones most likely to have the greatest proportion of
vegetarians within their populations.
* The International Vegetarian Union, a union of all the national
societies, was founded in 1908.
* In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism steadily
grew over the 20th century[citation needed] as a result of
nutritional, ethical, and more recently, environmental and economic
concerns.
* Today, Indian vegetarians, primarily lacto vegetarians, are
estimated to make up more than 70% of the world's vegetarians. They
make up 20 to 30% of the population in India, while occasional
meat-eaters make up another 30%.[6][7][8]
* Surveys in the U.S. have found that roughly 1% to 2.8% of adults
eat neither meat, poultry, nor fish.[9][10][11]
Famous vegetarians
The list of famous vegetarians is very long and some have changed
the course of global history, such as Mahatma Gandhi, Leonardo Da
Vinci, Albert Einstein and possibly Adolf Hitler. Hitler's diet has
never been fully substantiated and remains a hotly controversial
topic amongst vegetarians who want no association with him (see
vegetarianism of Adolf Hitler).
Motivation and benefits
Religious and spiritual
The majority of the world's vegetarians, according to the Society of
Ethical and Religious Vegetarians, follow the practice for religious
reasons. Many religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, the
Bahá'í Faith, Sikhism, and Jainism teach that ideally life should
always be valued and not willfully destroyed for unnecessary human
gratification. Denominations that advocate a fully vegetarian diet
include the Seventh Day Adventists, the Rastafari movement and the
Hare Krishnas.
Some adherents of Eastern religions, such as Mahatma Gandhi, claim
that spiritual awareness and experiences are greatly enhanced on a
vegetarian diet. In the Western world there are also individuals
like James Redfield who, independent from any specific religious
beliefs, share the same sentiment. In the West this Spirituality
motivation is regarded by many as a New Age reason for being
vegetarian. These people believe that vegetarianism helps an
individual to explore deeper levels of consciousness, find inner
peace and establish a connection with the Divine, through such
practices as meditation, yoga or whirling.
Hinduism
The major paths of Hinduism hold vegetarianism as the ideal, this is
for a variety of reasons based on different beliefs. For many
Hindus, it is a textually-advocated belief in ahinsa
(nonviolence),[12] to avoid indulgences (as meat was considered an
indulgence), and to reduce bad karmic influences. For others
(especially within Vaishnavism and the bhakti movements), it is
because their chosen deity does not accept offerings of non
vegetarian foods, which the follower then accepts as prasad.
Generally there is the belief, based on scriptures such as Bhagavad
Gita that one's food shapes the personality, mood and mind.[13] Meat
is said to promote sloth and ignorance and a mental state known as
tamas while a vegetarian diet is considered to promote satvic
qualities, calm the mind, and be essential for spiritual progress.
The Vedic and Puranic scriptures of Hinduism assert that animals
have souls and the act of killing animals without due course has
considerable karmic repercussions (i.e the killer will suffer the
pain of the animal he has killed in this life or the next). The
principle of Ahinsa (non-violence) compels one to refrain from
injuring any living creature, physically, mentally or emotionally
without good reason. Most of the secular motivations for
vegetarianism such as ethical considerations and nutrition apply to
Hindu motivations as well.
Judaism
In the Jewish religion people are allowed to consume meat, with
restrictions. Jews are not permitted to consume meat and dairy
products in the same meal, this is considered part of keeping
kosher. They are also not supposed to eat pork or shellfish at all.
There are some in the Jewish community that believe it to be a
religious obligation to eat meat on the Sabbath and on holidays.
However, it is generally accepted that its ok not to eat meat on
those days as well. When the temple stood in Jerusalem every
Passover, everyone was obligated to eat meat at the Passover
Offering. Today, some Jews choose not to eat meat simply due to the
difficulty of finding Kosher meat or poultry in areas far from
established Jewish communities.
Jainism
Followers of Jainism hold vegetarianism as the ideal diet in a
similar fashion to the Hindu traditions but with a greater emphasis
on the principle of all-round non-violence (ahimsa). A strict Jain
is not supposed to consume onions, potatoes, garlic, honey as well
as abstaining from any meat products. It is believed that the people
who want to sublimate their spiritual life should abstain from use
of forbidden food.
Buddhism
Different schools of Buddhism have differing opinions on
vegetarianism: Chinese Mahayana Buddhists oppose the consumption of
meat, and Chinese Mahayana monks observe vegetarianism. The Mahayana
schools of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhism do not consider a
vegetarian diet to be essential, nor do Theravadin Buddhists,
although Theravadin Buddhists will refuse meat if the animal has
been killed specifically for them (see Vegetarianism in Buddhism).
Many practitioners of the Buddha's teachings are vegetarian in order
to cultivate the quality of lovingkindness, or metta (Pali word). By
choosing to refrain from killing other beings out of compassion for
those beings' lives, the heart is inclined toward metta. Cultivation
of metta is considered to increase one's own well-being, as well as
the well-being of others one comes into contact with.
Christianity
While vegetarianism is not common in Christian thought (although the
Book of Daniel Chapter 1 v 8-16 specifically promotes it as
beneficial the Bible frequently advocates the eating of meat) some
Christian leaders, such as the Reverend Andrew Linzey, have
supported the view that Jesus was a vegetarian. A text not included
in the Christian Bible known as the Gospel of the Ebionites,
emphasises that Jesus advocated vegetarianism, abolished the Jewish
meat sacrifice system, and never ate meat. In contemporary
Christianity, the Seventh Day Adventist Church promotes
vegetarianism among its followers (see Christian vegetarianism).
Islam
Islam allows some consumption of meat; this meat is known as "Halal",
and this meat is slaughtered by the Islamic standards, and
disallowed meat is "Haram", which is non permitted meat or meat not
slaughtered according to Islam's standards. Islam accepts the
ritualistic animal slaughter done by Jews, known as "shechita.
(Hebrew)" Islam also excludes the consumption of pork (pig meat).
Muslim vegetarians are very rare as the consumption of meat is
intertwined with religious sacrificing of animals (namely caprids,
bovines and Camels) in Eid ul-Adha. However, when travelling to
locations where it is difficult to get halal meat, some Muslims
choose to depend on available vegetarian dishes.
Sikhism
Followers of the Sikh religion are divided in their opinion on
whether their religion opposes meat consumption for Sikhs. Although
many Sikhs eat meat and drink alcohol, orthodox Sikhs (or those who
have chosen to be baptized) generally abstain from the consumption
of meat and eggs, and certainly alcohol.
In the case of meat, the Sikh Gurus have indicated their preference
for a simple diet and depending on what one sees as a simple diet
could be meat or vegetarian. There are passages, however denouncing
the consumption of meat in the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of
Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth). The tenth guru, Guru Gobind
Singh, prohibited for the Khalsa (the order of baptized Sikhs) the
consumption of Halal or Kutha meat. Some interpret this as only
referring to meat prepared in the Muslim ritualistic way, but most
believe that the term and the context in which it was used pertains
to all meat regardless of the manner in which it was prepared. It
should be noted that meat and eggs are never served in the Guru Ka
Langar (Free Kitchen) that runs at all Gurudwaras (Sikh Temples).
Nutritional
The American Dietetic Association, the largest organization of
nutrition professionals, states on its website "Vegetarian diets
offer a number of nutritional benefits, including lower levels of
saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein as well as higher
levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and
antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals."
Studies show that a vegetarian mother's breast milk has
significantly lower levels of pesticide residue than a
non-vegetarian's.[14]
Some vegetable protein sources lack in one or more essential amino
acids. While everyone should eat a variety of foods to ensure a
balanced nutrition, the body's requirement for essential amino acids
now appears to be less important than researchers once
believed.[citation needed] Vegetarians taken broadly do not suffer
malnutrition, and so must receive at least most of the protein and
amino acids important to humans from eating a variety of incomplete
complementary plant proteins. If ideal nutrition is possible, intake
of such foods must be larger since the protein percentages in these
foods are comparatively lower than in a similar serving of meat.
Attaining sufficient protein intake is rarely a problem in developed
countries, and vegetarianism advocates have alleged that possible
lower protein intake of vegetarians may cause some of the health
benefits below.
A vegetarian diet does not include fish - a major source of Omega 3,
though some plant-based sources of it exist such as soy, walnuts,
pumpkin seeds, canola oil and, especially, hempseed and flaxseed.
Some suggest that vegetarians have higher rates of deficiencies in
those nutrients which are found in high concentrations in meat.
However, studies endorsed by the ADA found that this was not the
case for either iron or calcium. Vitamin B12 and zinc from
vegetarian sources other than dairy products and eggs are not
readily absorbed by the body and a vegan diet usually needs
supplements. [15] Nonetheless, these nutrients are now commonly
supplemented in milks and cereals in the western world, and are not
necessarily a problem in a vegetarian diet.
Ethical
Main article: Ethics of vegetarianism
Many vegetarians consider the production, subsequent slaughtering
and consumption of meat or animal products as unethical. Reasons for
believing this are varied, and may include a belief in animal
rights, or an aversion to inflicting pain or harm on other living
creatures. A belief also exists among vegetarians that other
animals' lives should not have to end in order for theirs to
continue. In developed countries, ethical vegetarianism has become
popular particularly after the spread of factory farming, which has
reduced the sense of husbandry that used to exist in farming and
which has led to animals being treated as commodities. Many believe
that the treatment which animals undergo in the production of meat
and animal products obliges them to never eat meat or use animal
products. This could perhaps be summed up in the phrase "Not in my
name".
Some vegetarians believe that consciously taking someone else's
belonging without consent is stealing and wrong. Since prey do not
consent to its life being taken away, so it would be immoral to
consciously kill an animal and eat its flesh.
Even in the West, numerous social justice leaders, such as Cesar
Chavez, have adopted a vegan/vegetarian diet in order to communicate
an agenda of social harmony and fellowship. [citation needed]
Environmental
Environmental vegetarianism is the belief that the production of
meat and animal products at current and likely future levels is
environmentally unsustainable. Industrialization has lead to
intensive farming practices and diets high in animal protein,
primarily in developed nations and mainly the United States.
According to the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) "Most of the
world's population today subsists on vegetarian or near-vegetarian
diets for reasons that are economic, philosophical, religious,
cultural, or ecological."[16] Thus, the main protest of
environmental vegetarians is primarily of intensive farming in
developed nations.
According to the United Nations Population Fund "Each U.S. citizen
consumes an average of 260 lb. of meat per year, the world's highest
rate. That is about 1.5 times the industrial world average, three
times the East Asian average, and 40 times the average in
Bangladesh."[17]
All modern, intensive farming practices consume large amounts of
fossil fuel and water resources and lead to emissions of harmful
gases and chemicals. The habitat for wildlife provided by large
industrial monoculture farms is very poor, and modern industrial
agriculture is a threat to biodiversity compared with farming
practices such as organic farming, permaculture, arable, pastoral,
and rainfed agriculture.
Animals fed on grain, and also those which rely on grazing, need far
more water than grain crops.[18] According to the USDA, growing the
crops necessary to feed farmed animals requires nearly half of the
United States' water supply and 80% of its agricultural land.
Additionally, animals raised for food in the U.S. consume 90% of the
soy crop, 80% of the corn crop, and a total of 70% of its grain.[19]
In tracking food animal production from the feed trough to the
dinner table, the inefficiencies of meat, milk and egg production
range from 4:1 energy input to protein output ratio up to 54:1.[20]
The result is that producing animal based food is typically much
less efficient than the harvesting of grains, vegetables, legumes,
seeds and fruits. This criticism could not be applied to animals
that are grazed rather than fed, especially those grazed on land
that could not be used for other purposes. However, this type of
grazing is becoming less common worldwide, being substituted with
intense farming, and in some cases leads to topsoil loss.
Economic vegetarianism
Similar to environmental vegetarianism is the concept of economic
vegetarianism. An economic vegetarian is someone who practises
vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning
issues such as public health and curbing world starvation, the
belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of
a conscious simple living strategy or just out of necessity.
According to the WorldWatch Institute "Massive reductions in meat
consumption in industrial nations will ease the health care burden
while improving public health; declining livestock herds will take
pressure off of rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural
resource base to rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat
consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining per
capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain
more affordable to the world's chronically hungry."[21] Economic
vegetarians can also include the poor people might not be averse to
eating meat, but regularly eat vegetarian food, out of economic
compulsions, since meat can often be a luxury. This is especially
true in countries like India where a vegetarian diet is far cheaper
and more economical than a diet that includes meat.
Physiological
There is considerable debate over whether humans are physiologically
better suited to a herbivore, omnivore, or carnivore diet.
Some, such as Albert Einstein, regard an evolution to a vegetarian
diet as part of our human evolution, with each new generation moving
slowly away from feeling a necessity of eating meat. The existence
of parasites such as Taenia saginata and Taenia solium, which rely
on humans as their unique end host and can only be transmitted
through eating meat indicates that human beings and their ancestors
have consumed meat through important lengths of their evolution
(i.e. millions of years).
Others study statistical information, such as comparing life
expectancy with regional areas and local diets. Examples include
looking within countries themselves. For instance, life expectancy
is considerably greater in southern France where a semi-vegetarian
Mediterranean diet is common (fresh fruit, vegetables, olive oil,
goats cheese and fish), than northern France where an omnivore diet
is more common (also including pork, beef, butter, cows cheese and
cream) [22]. It must be noted that national life expectancy is
affected by many factors, which include access to adequate
healthcare and medicine. This makes it difficult to conclusively
prove any correlation between regional diets and life expectancy.
Some vegetarian beliefs (such as Hare Krishna) suggest that human
beings have evolved to consume vegetable matter rather than meat.
The reasons they cite are mainly associated with the differences
between predators and plant-eating animals. Predators (such as dogs,
cats, or raptors) usually have sharp teeth or claws to tear fresh
meat, while plant-eating animals (such as horse and deer) have no
sharp teeth or claws to tear meat. Humans occupy a middle ground
between the two; they have no claws and mostly blunt teeth (molars)
but also a pair of sharp canine teeth designed for tearing, which
some feel is proof of a naturally omnivorous diet (gorillas are
herbivorous and have very large canines, though these are at least
partly for defensive purposes, while other primates with sharp
canines are not strictly herbivorous and will occasionally kill and
eat other animals)[citation needed]. Additionally, plant eating
animals, like cows and horses, drink water with their lips, unlike
lions, dogs, and cats who drink water with their tongues. Since
humans drink water with their lips, some consider this evidence that
that humans are vegetarians by nature.[citation needed]
The intestines of predators are relatively short compared with those
of plant-eating animals. Since meat is more easily digested than
plant matter, the elaborate digestive system found in plant eaters
in unnecessary. Herbivores need a much longer intestine to allow
sufficient time for the digestion of vegetable fibers.
According to The Straight Dope, humans have evolved to be omnivores.
Human intestinal length is, taken as a ratio, half way between
carnivores (such as cats and dogs) and herbivores (such as cows and
horses).
Psychological
Many vegetarians choose to be so in part because they find meat and
meat products aesthetically unappetizing. Proponents assert that
human beings are not instinctively attracted to eating live or dead
meat in nature. For example, the carcass of a cow lying in a forest
would attract a real carnivore like a wolf or leopard, but would
disgust most human beings. The metaphor by Douglas Dunn is that if
one gives a young child an apple and a live chicken, the child would
instinctively play with the chicken and eat the apple, whereas if a
cat was presented with the same choices, its natural impulse would
be the opposite.[24] In a similar assertion, Scott Adams once
humorously wrote that a human, presented with a live cow, would more
likely try to moo at it than attempt to eat its backside.
Moreover, research on the psychology of meat consumption suggests
that consumers of meat may need to use defense mechanisms such as
psychological numbing to distance themselves from the notion that
they are eating animals[25].
Food safety
E. coli
Vegetarianism is believed to reduce E. coli infections, and
proponents point to the link between E.coli contaminations in food
and industrial scale meat and dairy farms. The most recent E. coli
outbreak has once again demonstrated this link because the source of
this E. coli was traced back to "a large ranch in the Salinas Valley
that has a beef cattle operation" about a half-mile from the spinach
fields where spinach became contaminated.[26]
There are several variants of E. coli and they can be found in a
healthy human gut, but the deadly strain, O157:H7 was virtually
unheard of until the 1980's. It is believed that this strain evolved
in the digestive system of grain fed cattle on large industrial
farms.[27] On these farms, grain is used as cattle feed because it
is nutrient-packed and increases efficiency. A side effect of
feeding grain to cattle is that it increases the acidity of their
stomach - and it is in this acidic gut that the deadly O157:H7
thrives.
In 2003, an article in the Journal of Dairy Science found that
between 30 and 80 percent of cattle carry E. coli O157:H7.[28] In
that same journal article, a quick fix was pointed out: Cows that
are switched from a grain diet to a forage diet saw, within 5 days,
a 1,000 fold decrease in the abundance of strain O157. But until
changes like this are made, the source of many E. coli outbreaks
will continue to be high-yield meat and dairy farms.[29]
More likely, rather than change the way cattle are fed or raised on
industrial farms there will instead be pressure to find technolgical
solutions like food irradiation, plans for HACCP, or simply cooking
burgers longer. Suggestions like this have led some experts, like
Professor of Science and Environmental Journalism at UC Berkeley,
Michael Pollan, to suggest that "All of these solutions treat E.
coli 0157:H7 as an unavoidable fact of life rather than what it is:
a fact of industrial agriculture."[30]
Advocates such as Howard Lyman and groups such as People for the
Ethical Treatment of Animals have promoted vegetarianism in response
to cases of E.coli infection.
However, it must be noted that E.coli can be acquired from any
excrement-contaminated food or human commensal bacteria. The recent
case of Spinach with E.coli contamination in USA shows that
vegetarian foods are also susceptible to food safety concerns.[31]
In 2005, some people who had consumed branded triple-washed,
pre-packaged lettuce were infected with E. Coli. In fact E. coli
outbreaks have also involved unpasteurized apple and orange juice,
milk, alfalfa sprouts, and even water.[33]
Other food scares
Various animal food safety scares over recent years have led people
towards semi-vegetarianism or vegetarianism. These scares have
included BSE in cows, foot-and-mouth in sheep, PCBs in farmed salmon
and generally high dioxin concentrations in animal products.
According to various organisations, vCJD in humans is strongly
linked with exposure to the BSE agent which has been found in beef.
Social
Some people are vegetarian because they were raised in a vegetarian
household. Others may have become vegetarians because of a
vegetarian partner, family member, or friend. Some people live in a
predominantly vegetarian society (such as India), and so adopt this
practice to avoid ostracism, or for the difficulty of buying meat in
such a society.
Medical
Sometimes patients of alternative medicine are advised to adhere to
a vegetarian diet as prescribed by the practitioners of such
unconventional medical treatments. These patients are either asked
to continue such a diet either for the course of the treatment or
for longer durations. Ayurveda and Siddha medicine are examples of
medical treatments that prescribe such a vegetarian diet. In such
cases, the patient either follows vegetarianism for the defined
period or sometimes continues long after the treatment is over.
Vegetarian clothing
Some vegetarians will choose not to wear leather; however, this can
prove difficult in the workplace where it is expected that people
wear footwear made of leather. There are specialist suppliers such
as Vegetarian Shoes in the UK that supply belts, shoes, safety boots
and jackets that share the appearance of leather but are in fact
made of synthetic materials generically known as Vegan leather.
Other retailers that carry non-leather shoes or accessories include
Moo Shoes, Pangea, Earth, and Alternative Outfitters. High fashion
designer Stella McCartney is famed for her refusal to use leather,
fur or other animal products in her range of clothes and accessories
and is thus popular with wealthier vegetarians.
Country specific information
Around the world vegetarianism is viewed in different lights. In
some areas there is cultural and even legal support, where in others
the diet is poorly understood or even frowned upon. In many
countries food labeling is in place which makes it easier for
vegetarians to identify foods compatible with their diets.
In India, not only is there food labelling, but many restaurants are
marketed and signed as being either "Vegetarian" or
"Non-Vegetarian". People who are vegatarian in India are usually
Lacto vegetarians, and therefore to cater for this market, the
majority of resturants in India that say they are vegatarian do not
serve food made from eggs, while most western vegetarian resturants
do.
In other countries with less of a Vegetarian culture, a request for
a vegetarian meal may result in one being served fish or a vegetable
soup made with meat stock.
Criticism
There are three main criticisms of vegetarianism, based on health,
environment, and mortality.
Longevity
A 1999 metastudy[35] compared six major studies from western
countries. The study found that the mortality ratio was the lowest
in fish eaters (0.82) followed by vegetarians (0.84) and occasional
meat eaters (0.84) and which was then followed by regular meat
eaters (1.0) and vegans (1.0). In "Mortality in British
vegetarians",[36] it was concluded that "British vegetarians have
low mortality compared with the general population. Their death
rates are similar to those of comparable non-vegetarians, suggesting
that much of this benefit may be attributed to non-dietary lifestyle
factors such as a low prevalence of smoking and a generally high
socio-economic status, or to aspects of the diet other than the
avoidance of meat and fish."
A more positive outcome for vegetarians was found in a recent
analysis of data from the Adventist Health Study which predicted
life expectancy in Seventh-day Adventists following different
behaviour patterns. The researchers found that a combination of
different lifestyle choices could influence life expectancy by as
much as 10 years. Among the lifestyle choices investigated, a
vegetarian diet was estimated to confer an extra 1˝ to 2 years of
life. The researchers concluded that "the life expectancies of
California Adventist men and women are higher than those of any
other well-described natural population" at 78.5 years for men and
82.3 years for women. The life expectancy of California Adventists
surviving to age 30 was 83.3 years for men and 85.7 years for
women.[37]
Health
It is already long established in science that a number of lifestyle
choices such as smoking, exercise and alcohol influence health and
longevity. However, scientific studies so far fail to show that the
decision to forgo meat contributes independently to people's life
expectancy.
Another claim repeatedly made by vegetarian advocacy groups is that
vegetarians suffer less from heart problems. Studies which include
the above, consistently confirm that vegetarians suffer less
mortality from ischemic heart disease. Since there is no evidence
that a vegetarian diet causes longer overall life expectancy, one
cannot equate decreased mortality rate from ischemic heart disease
to overall decrease in mortality or overall health.[38] Moreover,
occasional meat eaters also achieve statistically similar mortality
rates indicating that this does not relate to the decision to
exclude meat completely. Yet, both vegetarian and vegan advocacy
groups invariably promote their diet as healthy while claiming that
the diet which includes meat and/or fish is inherently unhealthy.
Critics argue that these groups are engaging in scientific
misrepresentation in direct opposition to public interest by
diverting people's attention from already scientifically proven
health factors. These include moderate exercise, moderate alcohol
intake, not smoking and sufficient intake of fruits and green
vegetables.
Some point to research demonstrating a vegetarian diet, or higher
phytoestrogen intake, may be linked to genital defects, although
stating "The role of maternal nutrition has received little
investigation".[39] However the original authors of the research
have distanced themselves from those alarmist news reports.[40]
An argument is made that some vegetarians do not have a balanced
diet, which has led to nutritional deficiencies and immunity-linked
disorders.[41] This is a criticism of vegetarians who follow an
unbalanced or restricted diet, although a balanced vegetarian diet
can be obtained by eating a variety of different food types. There
is also concern that on the average, vegetarian children tend to
grow and develop more slowly than non-vegetarian children, and
vegetarian adults tend to have slightly smaller body sizes than
non-vegetarian adults, however, studies have shown that Vegetarian
children actually attain a greater height (2.5cm greater for males,
and 2.0cm greater for females) while maintaining a lower body weight
[42][43]
A significant advantage that a vegetarian (particular vegan) diet
has is that is reduces the intake of cholesterol, which has been
linked to several health problems related to heart. Even though
cholesterol is also produced in human body, it is also present in
meat and dairy products. For people whose bodies naturally produce
higher amounts of cholesterol, vegetarian diet may offer means to
reduce or completely eliminate external cholesterol intake.